Platinum - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ /**/ if (wgNotice != '') document.writeln(wgNotice); Platinum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Platinum (disambiguation).78iridium ← platinum → goldPd↑Pt↓Ds Periodic Table - Extended Periodic TableGeneralName, Symbol, Numberplatinum, Pt, 78Element categorytransition metalsGroup, Period, Block10, 6, dAppearancegrayish white Standard atomic weight195.084(9) g·mol−1Electron configuration[Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s1Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1Physical propertiesPhasesolidDensity (near r.t.)21.45 g·cm−3Liquid density at m.p.19.77 g·cm−3Melting point2041.4 K(1768.3 °C, 3214.9 °F)Boiling point4098 K(3825 °C, 6917 °F)Heat of fusion22.17 kJ·mol−1Heat of vaporization469 kJ·mol−1Specific heat capacity(25 °C) 25.86 J·mol−1·K−1Vapor pressureP(Pa)1101001 k10 k100 kat T(K)2330(2550)2815314335564094Atomic propertiesCrystal structurecubic face centeredOxidation states1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6(mildly basic oxide)Electronegativity2.28 (Pauling scale)Ionization energies1st: 870 kJ/mol2nd: 1791 kJ/molAtomic radius135 pmAtomic radius (calc.)177 pmCovalent radius128 pmVan der Waals radius175 pmMiscellaneousMagnetic orderingparamagneticElectrical resistivity(20 °C) 105 n Ω·mThermal conductivity(300 K) 71.6 W·m−1·K−1Thermal expansion(25 °C) 8.8 µm·m−1·K−1Speed of sound (thin rod)(r.t.) 2800 m·s−1Tensile strength125-240 MPaYoung's modulus168 GPaYoung's modulus168 GPaShear modulus61 GPaBulk modulus230 GPaPoisson ratio0.38Mohs hardness4–4.5Vickers hardness549 MPaBrinell hardness392 MPaCAS registry number7440-06-4Most-stable isotopesMain article: Isotopes of platinumisoNAhalf-lifeDMDE (MeV)DP190Pt0.014%6.5×1011 yα3.18186Os191Ptsyn2.76 dε ?191Ir192Pt0.782%192Pt is stable with 114 neutrons190Ptsyn50 yε ?193Ir181mPtsyn4.33 dIT0.1355e193Pt194Pt32.967%194Pt is stable with 116 neutrons195Pt33.832%195Pt is stable with 117 neutrons195mPtsyn4.02 dIT0.1297e195Pt196Pt25.242%196Pt is stable with 118 neutrons197Ptsyn19.8913 hβ-0.719197Au197mPtsyn1.59 hIT0.3465197Pt198Pt7.163%198Pt is stable with 120 neutronsReferencesPlatinum (pronounced /ˈplætɪnəm/) is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pt and an atomic number of 78. Its name is derived from the Spanish term platina del Pinto, which is literally translated into "little silver of the Pinto River." It is in Group 10 of the periodic table of elements. A heavy, malleable, ductile, precious, gray-white transition metal, platinum is resistant to corrosion and occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some native deposits. Platinum is used in jewelry, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts, dentistry, and automobile emissions control devices. Platinum bullion has the ISO currency code of XPT. As of November 28th, 2008, Platinum was worth $868.00 per troy ounce (approximately $27.91 per gram).[1]Contents1 Characteristics2 Applications3 History4 Occurrence5 Isotopes6 Compounds7 Production8 Precautions9 Symbol of prestige10 See also11 Notes12 References13 External links//[edit] CharacteristicsAs a pure metal, platinum is silvery-white in appearance, lustrous, ductile, and malleable.[2] It does not oxidize at any temperature, though it is corroded by halogens, cyanides, sulfur, and caustic alkalis. Platinum is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid, though it does dissolve in aqua regia to form chloroplatinic acid, H2PtCl6.[3]Platinum's wear - and tarnish-resistance characteristics are well suited for making fine jewelry. Platinum is more precious than gold or silver. The price of platinum changes along with its supply and demand. For instance 1 gram of platinum was valued at 33 dollars in early 2008. During periods of sustained economic stability and growth, the price of platinum tends to be as much as twice as the price of gold, whereas, during periods of economic uncertainty[4], the price of platinum tends to decrease due to reduced demand, falling below the price of gold, partly due to increased gold prices. In the 18th century, platinum's rarity made King Louis XV of France declare it the only metal fit for a king.[5] Platinum possesses high resistance to chemical attack, excellent high-temperature characteristics, and stable electrical properties. All these properties have been exploited for industrial applications.Common oxidation states of platinum include +2, and +4. The +1 and +3 oxidation states are less common, and are often stabilized by metal bonding in bimetallic (or polymetallic) species.[edit] Applications  Cross section of a Metal-core ConverterThe most common use of platinum is as catalyst in chemical reactions. It has been employed in this application since the early 1800s, when platinum powder was used to catalyze the ignition of hydrogen. The most important application of platinum is in automobiles as a catalytic converter, which converts harmful emissions from the engine into less harmful gases. Platinum is also used in the petroleum cracking process, which breaks down crude oil molecules into smaller organic molecules, such as gasoline. PtO2, also known as Adams' catalyst, is used as a hydrogenation catalyst, specifically for vegetable oils.[6] Platinum metal also strongly catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas.[7]Platinum is used as an alloying agent for various metal products, including fine wires, noncorrosive laboratory containers, medical instruments, jewelry, dental equipment, electrical contacts, and thermocouples. Platinum-cobalt, an alloy comprised of roughly 3 parts platinum and 1 part cobalt, is used to make extremely strong permanent magnets.[6] Platinum-based anodes are used in ships, pipelines, and steel piers.[3]Chloroplatinic acid (H2PtCl6), the result of platinum dissolving in aqua regia, has various applications. It is used in photography, zinc etchings, indelible ink, plating, mirrors, porcelain coloring, and as a catalyst.[6] Platinum EagleCertain platinum-containing compounds are capable of crosslinking DNA and kill cells by similar pathways to alkylating chemotherapeutic agents. Cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin are licensed examples of this class of drugs.[8]In watchmaking, Vacheron Constantin, Patek Philippe, Rolex, Breitling and other companies use platinum for producing their limited edition watch series. Watchmakers highly appreciate the unique properties of platinum as it neither tarnishes nor wears out.[9] International Prototype Meter barOf the 239 tonnes of platinum sold in 2006, 130 tonnes were used for automobile emissions control devices, 49 tonnes were used for jewelry, 13.3 tonnes were used in electronics, and 11.2 tonnes were used by the chemical industry as a catalyst. The remaining 35.5 tonnes produced were used in various other minor applications, such as electrodes, anticancer drugs, oxygen sensors, spark plugs and turbine engines.[10][edit] HistoryPlatinum occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers, though there is little evidence of its use by ancient peoples. However, the metal was used by pre-Columbian Native Americans near modern-day Esmeraldas, Ecuador to produce artifacts of a white gold-platinum alloy. The first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger as a description of an unknown noble metal found between Darién and Mexico, "which no fire nor any Spanish artifice has yet been able to liquefy."[11] The alchemical symbol for platinum (shown above) was made by joining the symbols of silver and gold.In 1741, Charles Wood, a British metallurgist, found various samples of Columbian platinum in Jamaica, which he sent to William Brownrigg for further investigation. Antonio de Ulloa, also credited with the discovery of platinum, returned to Spain from the French Geodesic Mission in 1746 after having been there for eight years. His historical account of the expedition included a description of platinum as being neither separable nor calcinable. Ulloa also anticipated the discovery of platinum mines. After publishing the report in 1748, Ulloa did not continue to investigate the new metal. In 1758, he was sent to superintend mercury mining operations in Huancavelica.[11]In 1750, after studying the platinum sent to him by Wood, Brownrigg presented a detailed account of the metal to the Royal Society, mentioning that he had seen no mention of it in any previous accounts of known minerals. Brownrigg also made note of platinum's extremely high melting point and refractoriness toward borax. Other chemists across Europe soon began studying platinum, including Torbern Bergman, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, William Lewis, and Pierre Macquer. In 1752, Henric Scheffer published a detailed scientific description of the metal, which he referred to as "white gold", including an account of how he succeeded in fusing platinum ore with the aid of arsenic. Scheffer described platinum as being less pliable than gold, but with similar resistance to corrosion.[11]Carl von Sickingen researched platinum extensively in 1772. He succeeded in making malleable platinum by alloying it with gold, dissolving the alloy in aqua regia, precipitating the platinum with ammonium chloride, igniting the ammonium chloroplatinate, and hammering the resulting finely-divided platinum to make it cohere. Franz Karl Achard made the first platinum crucible in 1784. He worked with the platinum by fusing it with arsenic, then later volatilizing the arsenic.[11]In 1786, Charles III of Spain provided a library and laboratory to Pierre-François Chabaneau to aid in his research of platinum. Chabaneau succeeded in removing various impurities from the ore, including gold, mercury, lead, copper, and iron. This led him to believe that he was working with a single metal, but in truth the ore still contained the yet-undiscovered platinum group metals. This led to inconsistent results in his experiments. At times the platinum seemed malleable, but when it was alloyed with iridium, it would be much more brittle. Sometimes the metal was entirely incombustible, but when alloyed with osmium, it would volatilize. After several months, Chabaneau succeeded in producing 23 kilograms of pure, malleable platinum by hammering and compressing the sponge form while white-hot. Chabeneau realized that the infusibility of platinum would lend value to objects made of it, and so started a business with Joaquín Cabezas producing platinum ingots and utensils. This started what is known as the "platinum age" in Spain.[11]From 1875 to 1960 the SI unit of length (the standard metre) was defined as the distance between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of ninety percent platinum and ten percent iridium, measured at 0 degrees Celsius.In 2007 Gerhard Ertl won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the detailed molecular mechanisms of the catalytic oxidation of carbon monoxide over platinum (catalytic converter).[edit] Occurrence Platinum ore Platinum output in 2005Platinum is an extremely rare metal, occurring as only 0.003 ppb in the Earth's crust, and is 30 times rarer than gold. It is sometimes mistaken for silver (Ag) but platinum is whiter in appearance.Platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum and alloyed with iridium as platiniridium. Most often the native platinum is found in secondary deposits, platinum is combined with the other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals. Another large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural mountains, Russia, which is still mined.In the nickel and copper deposits the platinum group metals occur as sulphides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S)), tellurides (i.e. PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and arsenides (i.e. PtAs2), and as end alloys with raw nickel or raw copper. The platinum arsenide, sperrylite (PtAs2), is a major source of platinum associated with nickel ores in the Sudbury Basin deposit in Ontario, Canada. The rare sulfide mineral cooperite, (Pt,Pd,Ni)S, contains platinum along with palladium and nickel. Cooperite occurs in the Merensky Reef within the Bushveld complex, Gauteng, South Africa.[12]The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld complex in South Africa,[13] the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin, Canada with its large ore deposits are the two other large deposits. In the Sudbury Basin the huge quantities of nickel ore processed makes up for the fact that platinum is present as only 0.5 ppm in the ore. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States,[13] for example the and in the Absaroka Range in Montana.[14] This is also shown in the production of 2005. In 2005, South Africa was the top producer of platinum with an almost 80% share followed by Russia and Canada.[15]Platinum exists in relatively higher abundances on the Moon and in meteorites. Correspondingly, platinum is found in slightly higher abundances at sites of bolide impact on the Earth that are associated with resulting post-impact volcanism, and can be mined economically; the Sudbury Basin is one such example.[edit] IsotopesPlatinum has six naturally occurring isotopes: 190Pt, 192Pt, 194Pt, 195Pt, 196Pt, and 198Pt. The most abundant of these is 195Pt, comprising 33.83% of all platinum. 190Pt is the least abundant at only .01%. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, only 190Pt is unstable, though it decays with a half-life of 650×109 years. 198Pt undergoes alpha decay, but because its half-life is estimated as being greater than 320×1012 years, it is considered stable. Platinum also has 31 synthetic isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 166 to 202, making the total number of known isotopes 37. The least stable of these is 166Pt with a half-life of 300 µs, while the most stable is 193Pt with a half-life of 50 years. Most of platinum's isotopes decay by some combination of beta decay and alpha decay. 188Pt, 191Pt, and 193Pt decay primarily by electron capture. 190Pt and 198Pt have double beta decay paths.[16][edit] CompoundsSee also: Category:Platinum compounds Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (October 2008)Platinum's most common oxidation states are +2 and +4. Platinum(II) chloride, PtCl2, is a green-brown powder which is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether, though it is soluble in hydrochloric acid, HCl. Platinum(IV) oxide, PtO2, also known as Adams' Catalyst, is a black powder which is soluble in KOH solutions and concentrated acids.[17] PtO2 and the less common PtO both decompose upon heating.[2] Platinum(II,IV) oxide, Pt3O4, is formed in the following reaction:2Pt2+ + Pt4+ + 4O2- → Pt3O4Platinum also forms an oxide in the +6 oxidation state, PtO3.[18][edit] Production 1000 cubic centimetres of 99.9% pure platinum Average price of platinum from 1991 to 2007 in US$ per troy ounce (~$40/g).[19]Platinum together with the rest of the platinum metals is obtained commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper mining and processing. During electrorefining of copper, noble metals such as silver, gold and the platinum group metals as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud, which forms the starting point for the extraction of the platinum group metals.[20][21]If pure platinum is found in placer deposits or other ores it is isolated from them by various methods of subtracting impurities. Because platinum is significantly denser than many of its impurities, the lighter impurities can be removed by simply floating them away in a water bath. Platinum is also non-magnetic, while nickel and iron are both magnetic. These two impurities are thus removed by running an electromagnet over the mixture. Because platinum has a higher melting point than most other substances, many impurities can be burned or melted away without melting the platinum. Finally, platinum is resistant to hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, while other substances are readily attacked by them. Metal impurities can be removed by stirring the mixture in either of the two acids and recovering the remaining platinum.[18]One suitable method for purification for the raw platinum, which contains platinum, gold, and the other platinum group metals, is to process it with aqua regia, in which palladium, gold and the platinum are dissolved, while osmium, iridium, ruthenium and rhodium stay unreacted. The gold is precipitated by the addition of iron(III) chloride and after filtering of the gold, the platinum is precipitated by the addition of ammonium chloride as ammonium chloroplatinate. Ammonium chloroplatinate can be converted to the metal by heating.[22][edit] PrecautionsAccording to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, short-term exposure to platinum salts "may cause irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat" and long-term exposure "may cause both respiratory and skin allergies." The current OSHA standard is 0.002 milligram per cubic meter of air averaged over an 8-hour work shift.[23]Certain platinum complexes are used in chemotherapy and show good anti-tumor activity for some tumours. Cisplatin is particularly effective against testicular cancer; cure rate was improved from 10% to 85%.[24] However, the side effects are severe. Cisplatin causes cumulative, irreversible kidney damage and deafness.[25]. As with other ototoxic agents, deafness may be secondary to interactions with melanin in the stria vascularis.As platinum is a catalyst in the manufacture of the silicone rubber and gel components of several types of medical implants (breast implants, joint replacement prosthetics, artificial lumbar discs, vascular access ports), the possibility that platinum free radicals could enter the body and cause adverse effects has merited study. The FDA and other countries have reviewed the issue and found no evidence to suggest toxicity in vivo.[26][edit] Symbol of prestigeSee also: Platinum album An assortment of native platinum nuggetsPlatinum's rarity as a metal has caused advertisers to associate it with exclusivity and wealth. "Platinum" debit cards have greater privileges than do "gold" ones. "Platinum awards" are the second highest possible, ranking above "gold", "silver" and "bronze", but below Diamond. For example, in the United States a musical album that has sold more than 1,000,000 copies, will be credited as "platinum", whereas an album that sold more than 10,000,000 copies will be certified as “diamond”. Some products, such as blenders and vehicles, with a silvery-white color are identified as "platinum". Platinum is considered a precious metal, although its use is not as common as the use of gold or silver. The frame of the Crown of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, manufactured for her Coronation as Consort of King George VI, is made of platinum. It was the first British crown to be made of this particular metal.[edit] See alsoPlatinum as an investmentPlatinum blackPlatinum coinPlatinum compoundsPlatinum groupPlatinum in AfricaMerensky ReefPrecious metalPalladiumPlatinum nanoparticles[edit] Notes^ "Live Market Quotes". Kitco. Retrieved on 2008-09-09.^ a b Lagowski, J. J., ed. (2004). Chemistry Foundations and Applications. 3, Thomson Gale. pp.267–268. ISBN 0-02-865724-1. ^ a b CRC contributors (2007–2008). "Platinum". in Lide, David R.. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 4. New York: CRC Press. pp.26. ISBN 978-0-8493-0488-0. ^ "Platinum versus Gold". The Speculative Invertor.^ "Platinum". Minerals Zone. Retrieved on 2008-09-09.^ a b c Krebs, Robert E. (1998). "Platinum". The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements, Greenwood Press. pp.124–127. ISBN 0-313-30123-9. ^ Petrucci, Ralph H. (2007). General Chemistry: Principles & Modern Applications (9th ed.), Prentice Hall. pp.606. ISBN 0131493302. ^ Richards, A.D.; Rodger, A. (2007). "Synthetic metallomolecules as agents for the control of DNA structure". Chem. Soc. Rev. 36: 471–483. doi:10.1039/b609495c, http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/CS/article.asp?doi=b609495c. ^ "Unknown Facts about Platinum". watches.infoniac.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-09.^ George, Micheal W.. "Mineral Yearbook 2006: Platinum-Group Metals". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2008-09-25.^ a b c d e Weeks, M. E. (1968). Discovery of the Elements (7 ed.), Journal of Chemical Education. pp.385–407. ISBN 0848685792. OCLC 23991202. ^ Xiao, Z.; Laplante, A. R. (2004). "Characterizing and recovering the platinum group minerals—a review". Minerals Engineering 17: 961–979. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2004.04.001. ^ a b Seymour, R. J.; O'Farrelly, J. I. (2001). "Platinum-group metals". Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Wiley. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1612012019052513.a01.pub2. ^ "Mining Platinum in Montana". New York Times (1998-08-13). Retrieved on 2008-09-09.^ "Platinum–Group Metals" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries (January 2007). Retrieved on 2008-09-09.^ Audi, G. (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. ^ Perry, D. L. (1995). Handbook of Inorganic Compounds, CRC Press. pp.296–298. ISBN 0-8492-8671-3. ^ a b Heiserman, David L. (1992). Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds, TAB Books. pp.272–274. ISBN 0-8306-3018-X. ^ "London Platinum and Palladium Market". The London Platinum and Palladium Market. Retrieved on 2008-08-08.^ George, M. W. (2008). "Platinum-group metals" (pdf). U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries (USGS Mineral Resources Program), http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/mcs-2008-plati.pdf. ^ George, M. W.. 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Platinum-Group Metals, United States Geological Survey USGS, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/myb1-2006-plati.pdf. ^ Hunt, L. B.; Lever, F. M. (1969). "Platinum Metals: A Survey of Productive Resources to industrial Uses". Platinum Metals Review 13 (4): 126–138, http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/pmr-v13-i4-126-138.pdf. Retrieved on 2 October 2009. ^ "Occupational Health Guideline for Soluble Platinum Salts (as Platinum)" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved on 2008-09-09.^ Einhorn LH. (1990). "Treatment of testicular cancer: a new and improved model". J. Clin. Oncol. 8 (11): 1777–81. PMID 1700077, http://jco.ascopubs.org/cgi/content/abstract/8/11/1777. ^ Von Hoff DD, et al (1979). "Toxic effects of cis-dichlorodiammineplatinum(II) in man". Cancer Treat. Rep. 63 (9–10): 1527–31, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=387223&dopt=Citation. ^ "FDA Backgrounder on Platinum in Silicone Breast Implants". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved on 2008-09-09.[edit] ReferencesLos Alamos National Laboratory — PlatinumNuclides and Isotopes Fourteenth Edition: Chart of the Nuclides, General Electric Company, 1989.Jefferson Lab — The Element Platinum[edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Platinum Look up platinum inWiktionary, the free dictionary.The Platinum Group Metals DatabaseA balanced historical account of the sequence of discoveries of platinum; illustrated.WebElements.com — PlatinumPlatinum Metals Review E-JournalPlatinum Guild InternationalUnited States Geological Survey Platinum-Group Metals Statistics and Informationpicture of a 999.5 fine platinum ingot in the element collection from Heinrich Pniokv • d • eJewellery materialsPrecious metals:Gold · Palladium · Platinum · Rhodium · SilverPrecious metal alloys:Electrum · Rose gold · Sterling silver · White goldBase metals/alloys:Brass · Bronze · Copper · Stainless steelMineral Gemstones:Aventurine · Agate · Alexandrite · Amethyst · Aquamarine · Carnelian · Citrine · Diamond · Emerald · Garnet · Jade · Jasper · Malachite · Lapis lazuli · Moonstone · Onyx · Opal · Peridot · Quartz · Ruby · Sapphire · Sodalite · Sunstone · Tanzanite · Tiger's Eye · TopazOrganic Gemstones:Amber · Copal · Coral · Jet · Pearlv • d • ePeriodic tableH HeLiBe BCNOFNeNaMg AlSiPSClArKCa ScTiVCrMnFeCoNiCuZnGaGeAsSeBrKrRbSr YZrNbMoTcRuRhPdAgCdInSnSbTeIXeCsBaLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuHfTaWReOsIrPtAuHgTlPbBiPoAtRnFrRaAcThPaUNpPuAmCmBkCfEsFmMdNoLrRfDbSgBhHsMtDsRgUubUutUuqUupUuhUusUuoUueUbn Alkali metalsAlkaline earth metalsLanthanoidsActinoidsTransition metalsOther metalsMetalloidsOther nonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesRetrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum" Categories: Platinum | Chemical elements | Precious metals | CatalystsHidden categories: Articles to be expanded since October 2008 | All articles to be expanded Views Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools Log in / create account if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Interaction About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help Toolbox What links here Related changesUpload fileSpecial pages Printable version Permanent linkCite this page Languages العربية বাংলা Беларуская Bosanski Български Català Чăвашла Česky Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî / كوردی Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lojban Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Эрзянь Nederlands 日本語 Norsk (bokmål) Norsk (nynorsk) Occitan Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / Српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tagalog Tiếng Việt Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська 粵語 中文   This page was last modified on 1 December 2008, at 18:54. 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