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Nickel - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ /**/ if (wgNotice != '') document.writeln(wgNotice); Nickel From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search  The introduction to this article may not adequately summarize its contents. To comply with Wikipedia's lead section guidelines, it should be expanded to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points.For other uses, see Nickel (disambiguation).28cobalt ← nickel → copper-↑Ni↓Pd Periodic table - Extended periodic tableGeneralName, symbol, numbernickel, Ni, 28Element categorytransition metalsGroup, period, block10, 4, dAppearancelustrous, metallic andsilvery with a gold tinge Standard atomic weight58.6934(2) g·mol−1Electron configuration[Ar] 3d8 4s2Electrons per shell2, 8, 16, 2Physical propertiesPhasesolidDensity (near r.t.)8.908 g·cm−3Liquid density at m.p.7.81 g·cm−3Melting point1728 K(1455 °C, 2651 °F)Boiling point3186 K(2913 °C, 5275 °F)Heat of fusion17.48 kJ·mol−1Heat of vaporization377.5 kJ·mol−1Specific heat capacity(25 °C) 26.07 J·mol−1·K−1Vapor pressureP/Pa1101001 k10 k100 kat T/K178319502154241027413184Atomic propertiesCrystal structureface centered cubic0.3520 nmOxidation states4 [1], 3, 2, 1 [2](mildly basic oxide)Electronegativity1.91 (Pauling scale)Ionization energies(more)1st: 737.1 kJ·mol−12nd: 1753.0 kJ·mol−13rd: 3395 kJ·mol−1Atomic radius135 pmAtomic radius (calc.)149 pmCovalent radius121 pmVan der Waals radius163 pmMiscellaneousMagnetic orderingferromagneticElectrical resistivity(20 °C) 69.3 nΩ·mThermal conductivity(300 K) 90.9 W·m−1·K−1Thermal expansion(25 °C) 13.4 µm·m−1·K−1Speed of sound (thin rod)(r.t.) 4900 m·s−1Young's modulus200 GPaShear modulus76 GPaBulk modulus180 GPaPoisson ratio0.31Mohs hardness4.0Vickers hardness638 MPaBrinell hardness700 MPaCAS registry number7440-02-0Selected isotopesMain article: Isotopes of nickelisoNAhalf-lifeDMDE (MeV)DP56Nisyn6.075 dε-56Coγ0.158, 0.811-58Ni68.077%58Ni is stable with 30 neutrons59Nisyn76000 yε-59Co60Ni26.233%60Ni is stable with 32 neutrons61Ni1.14%61Ni is stable with 33 neutrons62Ni3.634%62Ni is stable with 34 neutrons63Nisyn100.1 yβ-0.066963Cu64Ni0.926%64Ni is stable with 36 neutronsReferencesThis box: view • talk • editNickel (pronounced /ˈnɪkəl/) is a metallic chemical element with the symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is corrosion-resistant, finding many uses as in alloys and as a plating.Contents1 Characteristics2 History3 Occurrence4 Applications5 Extraction and purification6 Compounds7 Isotopes8 Biological role9 Precautions10 Metal value11 References12 External links//[edit] Characteristics  NickelNickel is a silvery-white metal that takes a high polish. It belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile. It occurs most usually in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel glance.[1][2][3]Similar to the massive forms of chromium, aluminium and titanium, nickel is a very reactive element, but is slow to react in air at normal temperatures and pressures. Due to its permanence in air and its inertness to oxidation, it is used in coins, for plating iron, brass, etc., for chemical apparatus, and in certain alloys, such as German silver.Nickel is magnetic, and is very often accompanied by cobalt, both being found in meteoric iron. It is chiefly valuable for the alloys it forms, especially many superalloys, and particularly stainless steel. Nickel is also a naturally magnetostrictive material, meaning that in the presence of a magnetic field, the material undergoes a small change in length.[4] In the case of Nickel, this change in length is negative (contraction of the material), which is known as negative magnetostriction.The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2, Ni complexes are observed. It is also thought that a +6 oxidation state may exist, however, results are inconclusive.The unit cell of nickel is a face centered cube with a lattice parameter of 0.352 nm giving a radius of the atom of 0.125 nm.[5]Nickel-62 is the most stable nuclide of all the existing elements; it is more stable even than iron-56.[edit] HistoryThe use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BC. Bronzes from what is now Syria had a nickel content of up to 2%.[citation needed] Further, there are Chinese manuscripts suggesting that "white copper" (i.e. baitung) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BC. However, because the ores of nickel were easily mistaken for ores of silver, any understanding of this metal and its use dates to more contemporary times. Nickel is used today as common household utensils, such as silverware.[citation needed]The white copper (Paktong) was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but it took up to 1822 when it was discovered it contains nickel.[6]Minerals containing nickel (e.g. German: Kupfernickel, Old or Low German: Kopper-Nickel or Koppernickel, meaning false copper) were of value for colouring glass green. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel (now called niccolite), and obtained instead a white metal that he called nickel.[7]Nickel is a mischievous sprite in German mythology. It became the name of the metal through a contraction of the German name for niccolite, Kupfernickel. The Kupfer element of this word is German for copper and Kupfernickel is used in the sense of "false copper" because niccolite bears a resemblance to copper-ore. The German miners were looking for copper but could obtain none from the mischievous Kupfernickel.[8]In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" was originally applied to the copper-nickel Indian cent coin introduced in 1859. Later, the name designated the three-cent coin introduced in 1865, and the following year the five-cent shield nickel appropriated the designation, which has remained ever since. Coins of pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland. [9][edit] OccurrenceThe bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of ore deposits. The first are laterites where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite: (Fe, Ni)O(OH) and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate): (Ni, Mg)3Si2O5(OH). The second are magmatic sulfide deposits where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite: (Ni, Fe)9S8.see Ore genesis, Category:Nickel minerals Widmanstätten pattern showing the two forms of Nickel-Iron, Kamacite and Taenite, in an octahedrite meteoriteIn terms of supply, the Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada, produces about 30 percent of the world's supply of nickel. The Sudbury Basin deposit is theorized to have been created by a massive meteorite impact event early in the geologic history of Earth. Russia contains about 40% of the world's known resources at the massive Norilsk deposit in Siberia. The Russian mining company MMC Norilsk Nickel mines this for the world market, as well as the associated palladium. Other major deposits of nickel are found in France (New Caledonia), Australia, Cuba, and Indonesia. The deposits in tropical areas are typically laterites which are produced by the intense weathering of ultramafic igneous rocks and the resulting secondary concentration of nickel bearing oxide and silicate minerals. A recent development has been the exploitation of a deposit in western Turkey, especially convenient for European smelters, steelmakers and factories. The one locality in the United States where nickel was commercially mined is Riddle, Oregon, where several square miles of nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits are located. The mine closed in 1987.[10][11]Based on geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is postulated to be concentrated in the Earth's core.Kamacite and Taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For Kamacite the alloy usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5 although impurities such as cobalt or carbon may be present, while for Taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite and taenite occur in nickel-iron meteorites.[edit] Applications Nickel superalloy jet engine (RB199) turbine bladeNickel is used in many industrial and consumer products, including stainless steel, magnets, coinage, and special alloys. It is also used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is pre-eminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in the nickel steels and nickel cast irons, of which there are innumerable varieties. It is also widely used for many other alloys, such as nickel brasses and bronzes, and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold.[citation needed]Nickel consumption can be summarized as: nickel steels (60%), nickel-copper alloys and nickel silver (14%), malleable nickel, nickel clad, Inconel and other Superalloys (9%), plating (6%), nickel cast irons (3%), heat and electric resistance alloys, such as Nichrome (3%), nickel brasses and bronzes (2%), others (3%).[citation needed][12][13]In the laboratory, nickel is frequently used as a catalyst for hydrogenation, most often using Raney nickel, a finely divided form of the metal.Nickel has also been often used in coins, or occasionally as a substitute for decorative silver. The American 'nickel' five-cent coin is 75% copper. The Canadian nickel minted at various periods between 1922-81 was 99.9% nickel, and was magnetic.[citation needed][edit] Extraction and purification Nickel output in 2005Nickel is recovered by extractive metallurgy. Most sulfide ores have traditionally been processed using pyrometallurgical techniques to produce a matte for further refining. Recent advances in hydrometallurgy have resulted in recent nickel processing operations being developed using these processes. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical extraction. Recent advances in hydrometallurgical processing of sulfides has led to some recent projects being built around this technology.Nickel is extracted from its ores by conventional roasting and reduction processes which yield a metal of >75% purity. Final purification of nickel oxides is performed via the Mond process, which upgrades the nickel concentrate to >99.99% purity. This process was patented by L. Mond and was used in South Wales in the 20th century. Nickel is reacted with carbon monoxide at around 50 °C to form volatile nickel carbonyl. Any impurities remain solid. The nickel carbonyl gas is passed into a large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres are maintained in constant motion. The nickel carbonyl decomposes depositing pure nickel onto the nickel spheres (known as pellets). Alternatively, the nickel carbonyl may be decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 degrees Celsius to create fine powders. The resultant carbon monoxide is re-circulated through the process. The highly pure nickel produced by this process is known as carbonyl nickel. A second common form of refining involves the leaching of the metal matte followed by the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode. In many stainless steel applications, the nickel can be taken directly in the 75% purity form, depending on the presence of any impurities.Nickel sulfide ores undergo flotation (differential flotation if Ni/Fe ratio is too low) and then get smelted. Smelting a nickel sulfide flotation concentrate requires a MgO level of <6% otherwise the temperature at which the smelting will be run at will be too high and lead to higher operating costs. After producing the nickel matte, further processing is done via the Sherrit-Gowden process. First copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide, leaving a concentrate of only cobalt and nickel. Solvent extration then efficiently separates the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel concentrate >99%.In 2005, Russia was the largest producer of nickel with about one-fifth world share closely followed by Canada, Australia and Indonesia, as reported by the British Geological Survey.[edit] CompoundsSee also: Category:nickel compounds Nickel sulfate crystals Tetracarbonyl nickelNickel(II) sulfate is produced in large quantities by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid. This compound is useful for electroplating nickel.The four halides of nickel are known: nickel(II) fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide. Nickel(II) chloride is produced analogously by dissolving nickel residues in hydrochloric acid.Tetracarbonylnickel (Ni(CO)4), discovered by Ludwig Mond,[14] is a homoleptic complex of nickel with carbon monoxide. Having no nett dipole moment, intermolecular forces are relatively weak, allowing this compound to be liquid at room temperature. Carbon monoxide reacts with nickel metal readily to give this compound; on heating, the complex decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide. This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for generating high-purity nickel.Tetracoordinate nickel(II) takes both tetrahedral and square planar geometries. This is in contrast with the other group 10 elements, which exclusively exist as square planar complexes.Nickelocene is known; it is air-sensitive. Bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) is a useful intermediate in organometallic chemistry. The cod ligands are easily displaced by other ligands.Nickel(III) oxide is used as the cathode in many rechargeable batteries, including nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron nickel hydrogen and nickel-metal hydride, and used by certain manufacturers in Li-ion batteries.[citation needed][edit] IsotopesMain article: Isotopes of nickelNaturally occurring nickel is composed of 5 stable isotopes; 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni and 64Ni with 58Ni being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance). 18 radioisotopes have been characterised with the most stable being 59Ni with a half-life of 76,000 years, 63Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and 56Ni with a half-life of 6.077 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1 meta state.Nickel-56 is produced in large quantities in type Ia supernovae and the shape of the light curve of these supernovae corresponds to the decay via beta radiation of nickel-56 to cobalt-56 and then to iron-56.Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 76,000 years. 59Ni has found many applications in isotope geology. 59Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment.Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide 60Fe (half-life = 1.5 Myr). Because the extinct radionuclide 60Fe had such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the solar system at high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Ni. Therefore, the abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history.Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any isotope for any element (8.7946 Mev/nucleon). [15] Isotopes heavier than 62Ni cannot be formed by nuclear fusion without losing energy.Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich heavy element isotope known . With 28 protons and 20 neutrons 48Ni is "doubly magic" (like 208Pb) and therefore unusually stable [16].The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48 u (48-Ni) to 78 u (78-Ni). Nickel-78's half-life was recently measured to be 110 milliseconds and is believed to be an important isotope involved in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron.[17][edit] Biological roleNickel plays numerous roles in the biology of microorganisms and plants, though they were not recognized until the 1970s. In fact urease (an enzyme which assists in the hydrolysis of urea) contains nickel. The NiFe-hydrogenases contain nickel in addition to iron-sulfur clusters. Such [NiFe]-hydrogenases characteristically oxidise H2. A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, F430, is present in the methyl coenzyme M reductase which powers methanogenic archaea. One of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of an Fe-Ni-S cluster.[18] Other nickel-containing enzymes include a class of superoxide dismutase[19] and a glyoxalase.[20][edit] PrecautionsExposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in nickel equivalents per 40-hour work week. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed to be carcinogenic, and various other nickel compounds may be as well.[21][22] Nickel carbonyl, [Ni(CO)4], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of a metal as well as the carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic carbon monoxide gas, and this one is no exception. It is explosive in air.[citation needed]Sensitized individuals may show an allergy to nickel affecting their skin, also known as dermatitis. Nickel is an important cause of contact allergy, partly due to its use in jewelry intended for pierced ears.[23] Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made nickel-free due to this problem. The amount of nickel which is allowed in products which come into contact with human skin is regulated by the European Union. In 2002 researchers found amounts of nickel being emitted by 1 and 2 Euro coins far in excess of those standards. This is believed to be due to a galvanic reaction.[24][edit] Metal valueAs of April 5, 2007 nickel was trading at 52,300 $US/mt (52.30 $US/kg, 23.51 $US/lb or 1.47 $US/oz) ,[3] [4]. The US nickel coin contains 0.04 oz (1.25gm) of nickel, which at that price was worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, making the metal value over 9 cents. Since a nickel is worth 5 cents, this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. However, the United States Mint, in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalize the melting and export of cents and nickels.[5] Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.[edit] References^ Los Alamos National Laboratory – Nickel^ National Pollutant Inventory - Nickel and compounds Fact Sheet^ High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins (Nature Abstract)^ UCLA - Magnetostrictive Materials Overview^ Callister, William D. (2007). Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction (7th edition ed.), John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-73696-7. ^ McNeil, Ian (1990). "The Emergence of Nickel". An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology, Taylor & Francis. pp.96–100. ISBN 9780415013062. ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: III. Some eighteenth-century metals". Journal of Chemical Education 9: 22. ^ Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, p888, W&R Chambers Ltd, 1977.^ Molloy, Bill (2001-11-08). "Trends of Nickel in Coins - Past, Present and Future". The Nickel Institute. Retrieved on 2008-11-19.^ http://www.oregongeology.com/sub/publications/OG/OBv15n10.pdf The Ore-Bin, v. 15, #10, 1953^ http://www.environmentwriter.org/resources/backissues/chemicals/nickel.htm Chemical Backgrounders: Nickel^ Kuck, Peter H.. "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2006: Nickel". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2008-11-19.^ Kuck, Peter H.. "Mineral Yearbook 2006: Nickel". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2008-11-19.^ Mond L, Langer K, Quincke F (1890). "Action of carbon monoxide on nickel". Journal of the Chemical Society: 749–753. doi:10.1039/CT8905700749. ^ "The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei". Retrieved on 2008-11-19.}}^ W., P. (October 23, 1999). "Twice-magic metal makes its debut - isotope of nickel". Science News. Retrieved on 2006-09-29.^ Castelvecchi, Davide (2005-04-22). "Atom Smashers Shed Light on Supernovae, Big Bang". Retrieved on 2008-11-19.^ Jaouen, G., Ed. Bioorganometallics: Biomolecules, Labeling, Medicine; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, 2006^ Szilagyi, R. K. Bryngelson, P. A.; Maroney, M. J.; Hedman, B.; Hodgson, K. O.; Solomon, E. I."S K-Edge X-ray Absorption Spectroscopic Investigation of the Ni-Containing Superoxide Dismutase Active Site: New Structural Insight into the Mechanism" Journal of the American Chemical Society 2004, volume 126, 3018-3019.^ Thornalley, P. J., "Glyoxalase I--structure, function and a critical role in the enzymatic defence against glycation", Biochemical Society Transactions, 2003, 31, 1343-8.^ KS Kasprzak, FW Sunderman Jr, K Salnikow. Nickel carcinogenesis. Mutation Research. 2003 Dec 10;533(1-2):67-97. PubMed^ JK Dunnick, MR Elwell, AE Radovsky, JM Benson, FF Hahn, KJ Nikula, EB Barr, CH Hobbs. Comparative Carcinogenic Effects of Nickel Subsulfide, Nickel Oxide, or Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate Chronic Exposures in the Lung. Cancer Research. 1995 Nov 15;55(22):5251-6. PubMed^ Thyssen JP, Linneberg A, Menné T, Johansen JD (2007). "The epidemiology of contact allergy in the general population—prevalence and main findings". Contact Dermatitis 57 (5): 287–99. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01220.x. PMID 17937743, http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01220.x. ^ Nestle, O.; Speidel, H.; Speidel, M. O. (2002). "free abstract High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins". Nature 419: 132, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v419/n6903/abs/419132a.html free abstract. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nickel Look up nickel inWiktionary, the free dictionary.WebElements.com – Nickel (also used as a reference)v • d • ePeriodic tableH HeLiBe BCNOFNeNaMg AlSiPSClArKCa ScTiVCrMnFeCoNiCuZnGaGeAsSeBrKrRbSr YZrNbMoTcRuRhPdAgCdInSnSbTeIXeCsBaLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuHfTaWReOsIrPtAuHgTlPbBiPoAtRnFrRaAcThPaUNpPuAmCmBkCfEsFmMdNoLrRfDbSgBhHsMtDsRgUubUutUuqUupUuhUusUuoUueUbn Alkali metalsAlkaline earth metalsLanthanoidsActinoidsTransition metalsOther metalsMetalloidsOther nonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesRetrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel" Categories: Dietary minerals | Ferromagnetic materials | German loanwords | NickelHidden categories: Wikipedia introduction cleanup | All pages needing cleanup | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since September 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements since March 2007 Views Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools Log in / create account if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Interaction About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help Toolbox What links here Related changesUpload fileSpecial pages Printable version Permanent linkCite this page Languages Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycan বাংলা Беларуская Bosanski Български Català Чăвашла Česky Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî / كوردی Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lojban Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Māori मराठी Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本語 Norsk (bokmål) Norsk (nynorsk) Occitan O'zbek ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / Српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Tiếng Việt Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська ייִדיש 中文   This page was last modified on 1 December 2008, at 12:03. 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