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Scandium - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ /**/ if (wgNotice != '') document.writeln(wgNotice); Scandium From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search  "Element 21" redirects here. For the golf company, see Element 21 (golf company).21calcium ← scandium → titanium-↑Sc↓Y Periodic table - Extended periodic tableGeneralName, symbol, numberscandium, Sc, 21Element categorytransition metalsGroup, period, block3, 4, dAppearancesilvery white Standard atomic weight44.955912(6) g·mol−1Electron configuration[Ar] 3d1 4s2Electrons per shell2, 8, 9, 2Physical propertiesPhasesolidDensity (near r.t.)2.985 g·cm−3Liquid density at m.p.2.80 g·cm−3Melting point1814 K(1541 °C, 2806 °F)Boiling point3109 K(2836 °C, 5136 °F)Heat of fusion14.1 kJ·mol−1Heat of vaporization332.7 kJ·mol−1Specific heat capacity(25 °C) 25.52 J·mol−1·K−1Vapor pressureP/Pa1101001 k10 k100 kat T/K16451804(2006)(2266)(2613)(3101)Atomic propertiesCrystal structurehexagonalOxidation states3, 2[1], 1 [2](weakly basic oxide)Electronegativity1.36 (Pauling scale)Ionization energies(more)1st: 633.1 kJ·mol−12nd: 1235.0 kJ·mol−13rd: 2388.6 kJ·mol−1Atomic radius160 pmAtomic radius (calc.)184 pmCovalent radius144 pmMiscellaneousMagnetic orderingparamagneticElectrical resistivity(r.t.) (α, poly)calc. 562 nΩ·mThermal conductivity(300 K) 15.8 W·m−1·K−1Thermal expansion(r.t.) (α, poly)10.2 µm/(m·K)Young's modulus74.4 GPaShear modulus29.1 GPaBulk modulus56.6 GPaPoisson ratio0.279Brinell hardness750 MPaCAS registry number7440-20-2Selected isotopesMain article: Isotopes of scandiumisoNAhalf-lifeDMDE (MeV)DP44mScsyn58.61 hIT0.270944Scγ1.0, 1.1, 1.144Scε-44Ca45Sc100%45Sc is stable with 24 neutrons46Scsyn83.79 dβ-0.356946Tiγ0.889, 1.120-47Scsyn3.3492 dβ-0.44, 0.6047Tiγ0.159-48Scsyn43.67 hβ-0.66148Tiγ0.9, 1.3, 1.0-ReferencesThis box: view • talk • editScandium (pronounced /ˈskændiəm/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Sc and atomic number 21. A silvery white metal that is always present as compounds, scandium ores occur as rare minerals from Scandinavia and elsewhere, and it is sometimes considered along with yttrium, and the lanthanides, to be a rare earth element. It took a long time from its discovery in 1879 until it was first prepared in its metallic form in 1937 and the use in aluminium alloys in the 1970s, which is the only major application of scandium. Scandium is present in most of the rare earth element and uranium deposits, but it is extracted from these ores only in a few mines world wide.Contents1 History2 Characteristics2.1 Isotopes2.2 Compounds2.3 Occurrence3 Production4 Applications4.1 Other uses5 Precautions6 See also7 References8 External links//[edit] HistoryDmitri Mendeleev used his periodic law, in 1869, to predict the existence of, and some properties of, three unknown elements, including one he called ekaboron. Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team, apparently unaware of that prediction in the spring of 1879, were looking for rare earth metals. By using spectral analysis, they found a new element within the minerals euxenite and gadolinite from scandinavia. [3] [4] They named it scandium, from the Latin Scandia meaning "Scandinavia". The first attempt to isolate the scandium yielded only 250 mg of impure scandium oxide, but in the second attempt, they processed 10 kilograms of euxenite, producing about 2.0 grams of a very pure scandium oxide (Sc2O3).[4]Per Teodor Cleve of Sweden processed 10 kilograms of gadolinite to search for the new element. He concluded that scandium corresponded well to the hoped-for ekaboron, and he notified Mendeleev of this in August.[5] It took several years before William Crookes found a scandium concenration of 1% in the mineral Wiikite.[6] Fischer, Brunger, and Grieneisen prepared metallic scandium for the first time in 1937, by electrolysis of a eutectic melt of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides at a temperature of 700 to 800 °C. Tungsten wires in a pool of liquid zinc were the electrodes in a graphite crucible.[7] The first pound of 99% pure scandium metal was not produced until 1960. The use for aluminium alloys started after a patent was granted in 1971 in the United States, at the same time the Soviet Union also expanded the research on aluminium scandium alloys.[8][edit] CharacteristicsScandium is a rare, hard, silvery, rough, very dark metallic element that develops a slightly yellowish or pinkish cast when exposed to air. It is not resistant to weathering when pure and is dissolved on prolonged contact with most dilute acids. However, like some other reactive metals, this metal is not attacked by a 1:1 mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrofluoric acid, HF.The rarity of scandium is not an arbitrary fact. The thermonuclear reactions that produce the elements in this range of atomic numbers tend to produce much greater quantities of elements with an even atomic number. These elements are usually produced by the fusion of lighter elements with helium-4 nuclei, starting with carbon-12 (element six). Thus, the common elements in the range of scandium are atomic numbers 18 (argon), 20 (calcium), 22 (titanium), and 24 (chromium); with elements of odd atomic numbers 19 (potassium), 21 (scandium), and 23 (vanadium) being rarely produced, and thus being much less common. The production of the odd-numbered elements in this range result from much less common thermonuclear reactions, as is explained elsewhere.[edit] IsotopesMain article: isotopes of scandiumNaturally occurring scandium is composed of one stable isotope 45Sc. 13 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 46Sc with a half-life of 83.8 days, 47Sc with a half-life of 3.35 days, and 48Sc with a half-life of 43.7 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than 4 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 2 minutes. This element also has 5 meta states with the most stable being 44mSc (t½ 58.6 h).The isotopes of scandium range in atomic weight from 40 u (40Sc) to 54 u (54Sc). The primary decay mode at masses lower than the only stable isotope, 45Sc, is electron capture, and the primary mode at masses above it is beta emission. The primary decay products at atomic weights below 45Sc are calcium isotopes and the primary products from higher atomic weights are titanium isotopes.[edit] CompoundsThe most common oxidation state of scandium is +3. Scandium chemically resembles yttrium and the rare earth metals more than it resembles aluminium or titanium. Thus scandium is sometimes seen as the scandium(III) oxide, Sc2O3, and as scandium chloride(III), ScCl3. Scandium chloride disolves in a potassium chloride solution by forming K3[ScCl6], this shows that scandium prefers the coordination number six, similar to aluminium. In the compounds ScB and ScC, boron and carbon are incorporated non-stoichiometrically into the lattice of the scandium.[9] Alternative oxidation states of scandium are present in the hydrides scandium(II) hydride (ScH2) and scandium(I) hydride (ScH). ScH2 is stable at room temperature,[2] while ScH is only observable in high temperature gas phase spectroscopy.[1][edit] OccurrenceScandium is distributed sparsely on earth, occurring only as trace quantities in many minerals. The concentration in the upper continental crust is 7ppm and 25ppm in the lower continental crust.[10] Rare minerals from Scandinavia[11] and Madagascar[12] such as thortveitite, euxenite, and gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element (which is never found as a free metal). The mineral thortveititecan contains 40 - 45 % of scandium(III) oxide.[11]It is also found in residues that remain after tungsten is extracted from wolframite, and from ores after uranium and thorium have been extracted.[13]Scandium is more common in the sun and certain stars than on Earth. Scandium is only the 50th most common element on earth (35th most abundant in the Earth's crust), but it is the 23rd most common element in the sun.[citation needed][edit] ProductionWorld production of scandium is in the order of 2,000 kg per year as scandium oxide. The primary production is 400 kg while the rest is from stockpiles of Russia created during the cold war. The production of metallic scandium is in the order of 10 kg per year.[14][15]In 2003 only three mines produced scandium oxide. The uranium and iron mines in Zhovti Vody in Ukraine, the rare earth mines in Bayan Obo, China and the apatite mines in the Kola peninsula, Russia, yield the scandium ore as a by product of mining activities for other minerals[15] The scandium from these mines is sold as scandium oxide, and only a small fraction is converted to scandium fluoride and reduced with metallic calcium.Madagascar and Iveland-Evje Region in Norway are the only minable deposits of minerals with high scandium content, thortveitite (Y,Sc)2(Si2O7) and kolbeckite ScPO4·2H2O.[13] Other scandium deposits are associated with uranium, nickel-copper-cobalt laterite deposits, and ultramafic rocks worldwide. The nickel and cobalt mines at Syerston and Lake Innes, New South Wales, Australia, as well as several iron, tin, and tungsten deposits in China and several uranium deposits in Russia and Kazakhstan contain scandium. Up to 2003, none of these mines was extracting the scandium from the ore residues, but projects exist for several of the mines to start scandium extraction,[15] so there is no primary production of scandium in the Americas, Europe, or Australia.[edit] Applications  Parts of the Mig–29 are made from Al-Sc alloy.Since it is not a very common metal, scandium does not have many applications. The main application of scandium by weight is in aluminium-scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components. The aluminium alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% of scandium.[16] The Russian military aircrafts Mig 21[17] and Mig 29[16] used aluminium scandium alloys. Some unusual designs for sports equipment (bikes, golf clubs, lacrosse shafts, baseball bats[18] firearms, etc.) which rely on high performance materials also use scandium to improve the properties of aluminium. However, titanium, being much more common, and similar in lightness and strength, is much more widely used, with tons found in some aircraft, especially military ones. When added to aluminium, scandium substantially lowers the rate of recrystallization and associated grain-growth in weld heat-affected zones. Aluminium, being a face-centred-cubic metal, is not particularly subject to the strengthening effects of the decrease in grain diameter. However, the presence of fine dispersions of Al3Sc does increase strength by a small measure, much as any other precipitate system in aluminium alloys. It is added to aluminium alloys primarily to control otherwise excessive grain growth in the heat-affected zone of weldable structural aluminium alloys, which gives two knock-on effects; greater strengthening via finer precipitation of other alloying elements and by reducing the precipitate-free zones that normally exist at the grain boundaries of age-hardening aluminium alloys.[16][edit] Other usesIt is used in lacrosse sticks and baseball bats; a light yet strong metal is needed for precise accuracy and speed. Backcountry tent manufacturers sometimes use scandium alloys in tent poles. U.S. gunmaker Smith & Wesson produces a few variations including a large, medium, and small lightweight revolver with a frame composed of scandium alloy and a titanium cylinder.[19]Approximately 20 kg (as Sc2O3) of scandium is used annually in the United States to make high-intensity lights. [20] Scandium iodide added to mercury-vapor lamps produces an efficient artificial light source that resembles sunlight, and which allows good color-reproduction with TV cameras.[21] About 80 kg of scandium is used in light bulbs globally per year. The radioactive isotope Sc-46 is used in oil refineries as a tracing agent. [20]The original use of scandium-aluminium alloys was in the nose cones of some USSR submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). The strength of the resulting nose cone was enough to enable it to pierce the ice-cap without damage, and so enable a missile launch while still submerged under the Arctic ice cap[citation needed].Scandium triflate is a catalytic Lewis acid used in organic chemistry.It is wrongly thought that the blue color of the aquamarine variety of beryl is thought to be caused by scandium impurities in it.[22] Several publications make clear that the color centers of the aquamarine are due to iron(III) and iron (II) ions incorporated into the beryl structure.[23][edit] PrecautionsThe pure metal is not considered toxic, but scandium compounds should be handled as if they are toxic because the ionic forms of metals are normally at greatest risk for toxicity, and limited animal testing has been done for scandium compounds.[24] The LD50 levels for scandium(III) chloride for rats have been determined and were intraperitoneal 4 mg/kg and oral 755 mg/kg.[25][edit] See alsoYttriumRare earth element[edit] References^ a b McGuire, Joseph C.; Kempter, Charles P. (1960). "Preparation and Properties of Scandium Dihydride". Journal of Chemical Physics: 1584–1585. doi:10.1063/1.1731452. ^ a b Smith, R. E. (1973). "Diatomic Hydride and Deuteride Spectra of the Second Row Transition Metals". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences (1588): 113–127. doi:10.1098/rspa.1973.0015. ^ Lars Fredrik Nilson (1879). "Sur l'ytterbine, terre nouvelle de M. Marignac". Comptes Rendus 88: 642–647, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30457/f639.table. ^ a b F. L. Nilson (1879). "Ueber Scandium, ein neues Erdmetall". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 12 (1): 554–557. doi:10.1002/cber.187901201157. ^ Per Teodor Cleve (1879). "Sur le scandium". Comptes Rendus 89: 419–422, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3046j/f432.table. ^ William Crookes (1909). "On Scandium". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A 209: 15–46. ^ Fischer, Werner; Brünger, Karl; Grieneisen, Hans (1937). "Über das metallische Scandium". Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 231 (1-2): 54–62. doi:10.1002/zaac.19372310107. ^ Zakharov, V. V. (2003). "Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys". Metal Science and Heat Treatment 45 (7-8): 246–253. doi:10.1023/A:1027368032062. ^ Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.), Walter de Gruyter. pp.1055&ndas;1056. ISBN 3110075113. ^ Bernhard, F. (2001). "Scandium mineralization associated with hydrothermal lazurite-quartz veins in the Lower Austroalpie Grobgneis complex, East Alps, Austria". Mineral Deposits in the Beginning of the 21st Century. ISBN 9026518463. ^ a b Kristiansen, Roy (2003). "Scandium - Mineraler I Norge" (in Norwegian). Stein: 14–23, http://www.nags.net/nags/magasin/2003/Sc-minerals.pdf. ^ von Knorring, O.; Condliffe, E. (1987). "Mineralized pegmatites in Africa". Geological Journal 22: 253–-270. ^ a b "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008: Scandium". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2008-10-20.^ "Comodity Report: Scandium 2006". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2008-09-20.^ a b c Deschamps, Y.. "Scandium". mineralinfo.com. Retrieved on 2008-10-21.^ a b c Ahmad, Zaki (2003). "The properties and application of scandium-reinforced aluminum". JOM Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society 55 (2): 35–39. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0224-6. ^ Fuller. "Temporal Evolution of the Microstructures of Al(Sc,Zr) Alloys and Their Influences on Mechanical Properties". Northwestern University.^ Bjerklie, Steve (2006). "A batty business Anodized metal bats have revolutionized baseball. But arefinishers losing the sweet spot". Metal Finishing 104 (4): 61–62. doi:10.1016/S0026-0576(06)80099-1. ^ "Small Frame (J) - Model 340PD Revolver". Smith & Wesson. Retrieved on 2008-10-20.^ a b C.R. Hammond in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 85th ed., Section 4; The Elements^ Simpson, Robert S. (2003). Lighting Control: Technology and Applications, Focal Press. pp.108. ISBN 9780240515663, http://books.google.com/books?id=GEIhCl2T-2EC&pg=PT147&. ^ Bottrill, R. S.. "Rare earth, tantalum and niobium minerals reported in Tasmania". Retrieved on 2008-10-20.^ Viana, R. R.; Jordt-Evangelista, H.; Magela da Costa G.; Stern, W. B.; (2002). "Characterization of beryl (aquamarine variety) from pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil". Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 29 (10): 668–679. doi:10.1007/s00269-002-0278-y. ^ Horovitz, Chaim T.; Birmingham, Scott D. (1999). Biochemistry of Scandium and Yttrium, Springer. ISBN 9780306456572, http://books.google.com/books?id=1ZTQlCWKjmgC. ^ Haley, Thomas J.; Komesu, L.; Mavis, N.; Cawthorne, J.; Upham, H. C.. "Pharmacology and toxicology of scandium chloride". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 51 (11): 1043–1045. doi:10.1002/jps.2600511107. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Scandium Look up scandium inWiktionary, the free dictionary.WebElements.com – ScandiumLos Alamos National Laboratory – Scandiumv • d • ePeriodic tableH HeLiBe BCNOFNeNaMg AlSiPSClArKCa ScTiVCrMnFeCoNiCuZnGaGeAsSeBrKrRbSr YZrNbMoTcRuRhPdAgCdInSnSbTeIXeCsBaLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuHfTaWReOsIrPtAuHgTlPbBiPoAtRnFrRaAcThPaUNpPuAmCmBkCfEsFmMdNoLrRfDbSgBhHsMtDsRgUubUutUuqUupUuhUusUuoUueUbn Alkali metalsAlkaline earth metalsLanthanoidsActinoidsTransition metalsOther metalsMetalloidsOther nonmetalsHalogensNoble gasesRetrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandium" Categories: Chemical elements | Transition metals | Scandium | Scandium compounds | Scandium mineralsHidden categories: Move protected | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since September 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements since October 2008 Views Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools Log in / create account if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Interaction About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help Toolbox What links here Related changesUpload fileSpecial pages Printable version Permanent linkCite this page Languages Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা Беларуская Bosanski Български Català Česky Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Furlan Gaelg Galego 한국어 Hawai`i Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî / كوردی Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lojban Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk (bokmål) Norsk (nynorsk) Occitan O'zbek Polski Português Runa Simi Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / Српскохрватски Suomi Svenska తెలుగు ไทย Tiếng Việt Türkçe Українська 中文   This page was last modified on 1 December 2008, at 02:13. 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